Kekejaman Yang Sering Dibuat Wanita Pada Pria

Siapa bilang hanya lelaki yang bisa bertingkah laku buruk dan menyakiti hati pasangannya? Perempuan pun tidak jarang melakukan hal-hal kejam untuk mempermainkan ego dan emosi laki - laki. Tidak percaya?

Berikut ini adalah daftar delapan hal kejam yang kerap dilakukan perempuan kepada lawan jenisnya:

Buat para cewek silahkan baca, buat cowok juga.

1. MEMBUAT CEMBURU
Ayo mengaku, siapa yang sering flirting dengan lelaki lain hanya untuk membuat sang kekasih tersiksa karena cemburu? Perempuan sering melakukan hal itu untuk memberikan pelajaran kepada si dia yang kurang perhatian dan jarang menunjukkan kasih sayang. Tak ada salahnya melakukannya sekali-sekali, asal jangan kelewatan dan tahu kapan harus berhenti.

2. MENGETES
Tidak sedikit perempuan yang sengaja mengetes pasangannya untuk mengetahui seberapa besar kadar cinta sang kekasih, bahkan dengan cara-cara yang sering kali tidak masuk akal. Misal, Anda memaksanya menemani berbelanja padahal tahu pasti si dia telah memiliki rencana berkumpul dengan teman-temannya. Kamu pilih mana ? teman teman kamu atau aku? Nih sering banget di ucapin ma cewek cewek. Terus si lelaki biasanya dengan terpaksa akan menuruti kemauan Anda. Bener ga?

3. MENUTUPI STATUS
Sangat menyebalkan bagi lelaki ketika mengetahui perempuan yang selama ini dikejar-kejarnya ternyata telah memiliki seorang kekasih. Padahal, selama proses PDKT perempuan itu bersikap seolah-olah dirinya single dan menanggapi semua rayuan gombal mereka.

4. MENGKRITIK
Tidak ada lelaki yang suka dikritik, apalagi jika hal itu dilakukan oleh kekasihnya sendiri di depan publik. Hal itu benar-benar mampu meruntuhkan harga dirinya.

5. KEKERASAN FISIK
Sebagian perempuan barangkali menganggap tidak masalah melakukan kekerasan fisik terhadap kekasihnya, misalnya memukul atau menampar, karena yakin sang kekasih terlalu sopan atau gengsi untuk membalas serangan fisik tersebut.


6. MANIPULATIF
Lelaki selalu salah tingkah saat melihat perempuan menangis. Malangnya, hal tersebut justru dimanfaatkan perempuan untuk memanipulasi dan mendapatkan apa yang mereka inginkan. Lelaki akan melakukan apa saja untuk membuat tangisan itu berhenti, kan?

7. ASAS MANFAAT
Tidak sedikit perempuan yang memanfaatkan ketertarikan lelaki untuk kepentingan pribadi, misalnya hang out gratis atau fasilitas antar jemput, meskipun dia sendiri tidak merasa tertarik sedikit pun. Setelah bersenang-senang sedikit, lelaki itu pun dicampakkan. Ouch!

8. NOMOR TELEPON PALSU
Perempuan memberikan nomor telepon palsu kepada laki-laki kurang menarik yang ditemui, hanya karena malas meladeninya lebih lama. Kalau pun nomor telepon yang diberikannya benar dan lelaki itu menelepon, perempuan tidak akan mau repot-repot mengangkat panggilan telepon tersebut.

Nah , bagi para wanita yang sering melakukan hal - hal tersebut cobalah untuk memikirkan perasaan lelaki.

Karena lelaki itu bisa lebih mahir dalam memendam perasaan, jadi walaupun terasa sakit pasti mereka juga akan dengan sekuat tenaga menutupi perasaan mereka.  

Untuk berita menarik lainnya coba cek TKP nya disini

Einstein aja g tau.. Bener g ya?

Nasi tumpeng

Dulu ane sempat mikir knapa kalo telor di rebus makin lama makin keras.
Tapi kalo kentang yg di rebus kok malah makin lunak.

tau g knapa bisa begitu??
Jawabanya adalah karena telor kaya akan protein dan kentang kaya akan karbohidrat..
Protein, jika diberi energi sehingga suhunya naik, maka akan mengeras. Karbohidrat sebaliknya, melunak.
Pejelasan sederhananya kurang lebih begini gan.

Kandungan dari telur adalah protein. Protein merupakan rantai dari asam amino. Asam amino ini membentuk folding (struktur 3 dimensi dari protein ini menentukan sifat dari suatu protein). Folding tersebut terbentuk akibat adanya ikatan lemah (non-kovalen) diantara asam amino penyusun protein tsb. Ketika kita memanaskan telur, maka ikatan tersebut dirusak dan terjadilah denaturasi protein. Ketika telur dipanaskan, protein akan menyerap banyak energi dan ikatan antara asam amino penyusun protein tsb akan rusak, sehingga terjadilah proses unfolding. Suhu yang terus meningkat akan menyebabkan protein memperoleh lebih banyak lagi energi untuk membentuk ikatan baru yang lebih kuat (ikatan kovalen) dengan molekul protein lainnya. Dan pada akhirnya, telur menjadi semakin keras.

Bagian kuning telur selain mengandung protein, juga mengandung lemak. Itulah sebabnya, mengapa dibandingkan dengan bagian putih telur, bagian kuning telur membutuhkan waktu lebih lama untuk mengeras ketika dipanaskan / direbus.

Nah, mengenai ubi… simpel saja. Dinding ubi tersusun dari karbohidrat.
Karbohidrat merupakan senyawa yang mudah larut dalam air.
Ketika dipanaskan tentu saja proses pelarutan karbohidrat menjadi dipercepat.
Itulah sebabnya kenapa ubi menjadi tambah lembek ketika direbus.

Dan kalo yang ngrebus pinter akan jadi kayak gini deh..

Pewarisan (Inheritance)

C++ memungkinkan suatu kelas mewarisi data ataupun fungsi anggota kelas lain. Sifat seperti ini disebut pewarisan ( inheritance). Kelas yang mewarisi sifat kelas lain disebut kelas turunan ( derived class). Sedangkan yang mewariskan sifat ke kelas lain disebut kelas dasar ( base class ).
Keuntungan utama adanya pewarisan yaitu memungkinkan suatu kode yang telah ditulis mudah skali untuk di gunakan kembali. Dengan cara demikian pengembangan suatu program menjadi lebih efisin dan menghemat waktu. Selain itu , kita dapat menambahkan sifat -sifat baru yang tidak ada pada kelas dasar atau bahkan mengganti sifat- sifat pada kelas turunan, yang berbeda dengan sifat dasar.
Berikut adalah contoh dari kode c++ yang telah menggunakan sifat pewisan :
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
# include
# include
#include
const int batas = 80;

class Tespegawai // kelas induk
{
          private:
                char nama [batas];
                int nip;
                char alamat [batas];
          public:
                void getdata()
                {
                cout<<"\n==============================";
                     cout << endl << " Input Nama       : ";
                     cin >> nama;
                     cout << endl<<  " Input NIP        : ";
                     cin >> nip;
                     cout<< endl<<   " Input Alamat     : ";
                     cin >> alamat;
                }
                void putdata()
                {
                cout<<"\n==============================";
                cout << endl << " Nama        : " << nama;
                cout << endl << " NIP         : " << nip;
                cout << endl << " Alamat      : " <
                }
};
class dosen : public Tespegawai // kelas turunan
{
          private:

                float tunjangan;
                float gaji;
                float total;
          public:
                void getdata()
                {
                     Tespegawai::getdata();

                     cout<<<  " Input Gaji        :Rp.";
                     cin>> gaji;
                     cout<<<  " Input Tunjangan   :Rp. ";
                     cin >> tunjangan;
                     cout<<"\n==============================";
                }
                void putdata()
                {
                     Tespegawai::putdata();
                     total = gaji + tunjangan;

                     cout<<< "\n Tunjangan  :Rp. "<< tunjangan;
                     cout<<< "\n Gaji Pokok :Rp. "<< gaji;
                     cout<<< "\n Gaji Total :Rp. "<
                     cout<<"\n==============================";
                }
};
class admin:public Tespegawai //kelas turunan
{
          private:
                char bagian [batas];
                float gaji;
                int lembur;
                float total;
                int jam;
          public:
                void getdata()
                {
                     Tespegawai::getdata();
                     cout<<< "Input Bagian       : " ;
                     cin>>bagian;
                     cout<<< " Input Gaji Pokok  : ";
                     cin >> gaji;
                     cout<<< "lembur            : Rp.10000/jam";
                     cout<<< "Input Jumlah jam lembur :";
                     cin>> jam;

                     cout<<"\n==============================";
                }
                void putdata()
                {
                     Tespegawai::putdata();
                     lembur = 10000;
                     total = lembur*jam+gaji;
                     cout<<< "\n Bagian      :" << bagian;
                     cout<<< "\n Jam Lembur  :" << jam;
                     cout<<< "\n Gaji Pokok  :Rp." << gaji;
                     cout<<< "\n Total Gaji  :Rp." << total;
                     cout<<"\n==============================";
                }
};


class honorer:public Tespegawai   //kelas turunan
{
          private  :
              float gaji;

          public :
                void getdata()
                {
                Tespegawai :: getdata();
                cout<<< "Input Gaji  :Rp. ";
                cin >> gaji;
                cout<<"\n==============================";
                }
                void putdata()
                {
                Tespegawai :: putdata();
                cout <<<" \n Gaji        :Rp. "<< gaji;
                cout<<"\n==============================";
                }

};

void main()
{
          dosen d1;
         admin a1;
          honorer h1;


cout<< "************************************************************************\n";
cout<< "* Nama : Ibnu Fatoni                            NIM : 11201022         *\n";
cout<< "*                        TUGAS UAS PBO                                 *\n";
cout<< "************************************************************************\n";
cout<<"\n";
cout<<"\n";
          cout<
          cout<<"Input Data Dosen \n";
          d1.getdata();

          cout<
          cout<<"Input Data Admin \n";
          a1.getdata();

          cout<<"\nInput Data Honorer ";
          h1.getdata();


          clrscr();
          cout<<<"\n DATA KETIGA JENIS PEGAWAI ";
          cout<<<"\n";
          cout<<"\n==============================";
          cout<<"\nData DOsen ";
          d1.putdata();

          cout<<"\nData Admin";
          a1.putdata();

          cout<<"\nData Honorer";
          h1.putdata();
          cout << endl;

        getch();

}
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Dilihat dari kode diatas maka jelas dengan pewarisan kita bisa memperpendek code program.
jadi inilah perbedaan uama anata pemrograman terstruktur dengan pemrograman berorientasi objek.

Contoh Penggunaan Class Pada C++

Class memiliki penentu akses (access specifier) yaitu "public" , " private" , dan "protected".
Penentu akses private biasa digunakan pada kelas untukmemproteksi anggota - anggota tertentu pada kelas , agar tidak dapat di akses di luar kelas secara langsung. Public menyatakan bahwa anggota kelas tersebut dapat diakses di luar kelas ( bersifat public).
Berikut contoh script aplikasi sederhana dengan menggunakan class :
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
#include
#include
#include
#include

class Gaji
{
private :
float u;
float j;
float h;

public :
char nik[10];
char n[30];
float g (float x, float y, float z){
return (x*y-z);

}

void gaji_pegawai()
{
cout<<"MASUKKAN DATA YANG SESUAI \n";
cout<<"\n";
cout<<"NIK (Max. 10 char)  : "; gets(nik);
cout<<"\n";

cout<<"Nama (max . 30 char): "; gets(n);
cout<<"\n";

cout<<"Jumlah Jam Kerja   : ";
cin>>j;
cout<<"\n";

cout<<"Upah per Jam       : Rp";
cin>>u;
cout<<"\n";

cout<<"Hutang             : Rp";
cin>>h;
cout<<"\n";

cout<<"\t===================================================\n";
cout<<"\t NIK \t\t"<<"Nama  \t\t"<<"Gaji Bersih \t\t""\n";
cout<<"\t---------------------------------------------------\n";
cout<<"\t "<<<"     \t"<<<"     \t"<<"   Rp "<<<"\t";


getch(); }
};


void main()
{
Gaji Pegawai;
int c;


clrscr();

 do{
 clrscr ();
cout<< "************************************************************************\n";
cout<< "*                      CONTOH PENGGUNAAN CLASS                                                            *\n";
cout<< "*                                                                                                                                            *\n";
cout<< "************************************************************************\n";
cout<<"\n";
cout<<"\n";
cout<<"***********************MENU PILIHAN ANDA***************************** \n";
cout<<"                      1. Menghitung Gaji Anda\n";
cout<<"                      2. Keluar\n";
cout <<"\n";
cout <<"\n";
cout<<"                      PILIHAN ANDA : \n";
cin>>c;


if ((c<1) || (c>2)){
cout<< "PILIHAN ANDA SALAH... COBA LAGI :";
getch();
cout<< "\n";
}
clrscr();
switch (c)
{
case 1 :Pegawai.gaji_pegawai() ;
break;

case 2 :exit (0);
default : break;
}
}
while (c!=0);}

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Semoga bermanfaat :-)

Bumi, Pusat Alam Semesta ? part 2

Bumi

Melanjutan pada posting yang tedahulu yang telah menunjukan teori – teori tentang bumi sebagai pusat alam semesta maka pada posting kali ini kita akan bahas tanda –tanda lain bahwa bumi walaupun bukan sebagai pusat alam semesta maka bumi berada di dekat pusat alam semesta.

Gelombang Mikro

Tanda – tanda lain bahwa bumi – walaupun bukan apa- apa di tata surya dan galaksi – bisa menjadi pusat alam semesta adalah penemuan radiasi gelombang mikro oleh dua insinyur Arno Penzias dan Robert Wilson pada tahun 1965. Mereka menemukan desis yang berasal dari seluruh langit , baik siang maupun malam dengan kekuatan yang sama. Penemuan tersebut disimpulkan oleh Robert Dicke bahwa radiasi gelombang mikro tersebut berasal dari sisa ledakan dentuman besar. Dari sini sebenarnya bisa disimpulkan , bumi berada di pusat alam semesta, karena dari semua arah ternyata kekuatan desisnya sama. Ilmuwan lain bernama Michael Denton dalam bukunya Nture’s Destiny juga menyatakan kekagumannya pada posisi bumi yang terletak di  tepi galaksi Bima Sakti. Bila bumi berada di tengah galaksi , dapat dipastkan manusia tidak dapat memendang luasnya langit, karena terkurung oleh kepadatan bintang di galaksi Bima Sakti sendiri.

Dari kesimpulan para ahli atronomi tersebut, sangat jelas mereka berusaha menghindar dari pernyataan bumi sebagai pusat segala sesuatu, karena sejak awal zaman pencerahan Eropa, mereka telah membuang jauh – jauh dogma agama dalam hal iniajaran Kristiani. Mereka seolah – olah takut pada agama dan harus terpaksa memasukkan peran Tuhan. Bagi kebanyakan ilmuwan rupa rupanya untuk memasukan peran Tuhan ini masih merupakan hal yang tabu.

Versi Al- Quran

Menyikapi hal tersebut, Alquran dan hadis secara eksplisit mengarahkan bumi berada di sekitar pusat alam semesta. Bahkan Allah SWT rupanya sudah mengetahui sikap para ilmuwan terutama yang ateis. Surat AL Mu’minuun ayat 71 mengungkapkan ” Andaikata kebenaran itu menuruti hawa nafsu mereka, pasti binasalah langit dan bumi ini, dan semua yang ada di dalamnya. Sebenarnya Kami telah mendatangkan kepada mereka kebanggaan (Al Quran) mereka tetapi mereka berpaling dari kebanggaan itu.”

Bumi ini dibuat mudah untuk manusia dan ditempatkan pada posisi yang penting dalam struktur alam semesta yakni sebagai pusat. Namun, ternyata para ilmuwan yang masih dipengaruhi paham materislitik , eksistensial, positivistik, dan ateis tetap berusaha berpaling dari kemuliaan itu. Mereka masih terpaku pada materi , karena bagaimana mungkin bumi yang massanya tak berarti dibandingkan matahari , galaksi , apalagi alam semesta , bisa mengimbangi pengembangan alam semesta yang konon melesat mendekati kecepatan cahaya.

Sebuah tantangan yang menarik bagi ilmuwan dan orang-orang beriman – khususnya Muslimin dan Muslimat untuk mencari kebenaran. Yang kita harapkan adalah adanya kesesuain sains dan teknologi dengan kitabullah, karena pada hakikatnya keduanya berasal ari sumber yang sama yakni Allah.

Informasi yang mengarahkan bumi sebagai pusat alam semesta yang paling utama adalah QS Az-Zumar ayat 67 “Dan mereka tidak mengagungkan Allah dengan pengagungan yang semestinya padahal bumi seluruhnya dalam genggaman-Nya pada hari kiamat dan langit digulung dengan tangan kanan-Nya . Maha Suci Tuhan dan Maha Tinggi Dia dari apa yang mereka persekutukan.”

Informasi ini  menunjukkan bumi sebagai tempat tinggal manusia mendapat perlakuan khusus, yakni dipisahkan dari benda- benda langit lainnya. Penggulungan langit berarti beserta seluruh galaksi yang berada di dalamnya. Namun , manakala sudah sampai di ujung yakni di pusat kedudukan bumi, proses penggulungan berhenti dan bumi secara khusus dipisahkan. Secara logika , hal ini sulit dilakukan jika bumi berada di bagian tengah atau justru di bagian terluar , karena akan menyatu dengan seluruh benda di seluruh alam semesta. Hakikat pemisahan ini, karena manusia akan dibangkitkan kembali dan harus menghadapi mahkamah pengadilan tertinggi Allah untuk ditetapkan masuk surga atau neraka.

Ayat – ayat Alquran yang menjadikan Adam (manusia) sebagai khalifah dan memakmurkan bumi, juga menunjukan keistimewaan bumi. Dengan demikian sangatlah benar bahwa bahwa Allah sangat memuliakan manusia, namun manusia itu justru tidak mau menerima. Bahkan sebagian menentang keberadaan Allah dengan menyatakan Tuhan telah mati.

Tugas Ilmuwan

Pandangan agama samawi bahwa bumi sebagai pusat alam semesta tentunya sulit diterima para ilmuwan , karena masa materinya yang sangat kecil. Hal ini sulit karena mungkin ilmuwan masih mengikuti teori big bang dengan satu titik pusat ledakan ke segala arah. Para ilmuwan pasti tetap menanyakan peran bumi dalam menjaga keseimbangan alam semesta, sehingga tidak runtuh. Inilah tantangan yang harus dijawab oleh para ilmuwan.

H. Mudjiono

Pikiran Rakyat 27 oktober 2005

Bumi, Pusat Alam Semesta ? part 1

"Dimanakah sebenarnya kedudukan  bumi di alam semesta ini?

Bumi, merupakan planet yang indah.

Bagi para iilmuwan, alam semesta sangat luas namun terbatas, masih menjadi misteri yang belum terpecahkan. Tidaklah mengherankan muncul berbagai hipotesis dan teori tentang alam semesta yang berbeda antara satu dengan yang lainnya. Salah satunya adalah dimana kedudukan pusat alam semesta ? Disinilah, dituntut peran para ilmuwan untuk membuktikanya

Katakanlah teori  Big Bang (ledakn besar )sudah tentu semakin mantap bila sudah dapat diketahui pusat alam semesta yang notabene sebagai pusat ledakan besar yang menjadi awal perhitungan waktu. Begitu juga untuk teori “alam semesta berisolasi” , akan memudahkan untuk mencari kepastian tentang pengembangan dan pengerutan alam semesta.

Namun yang jadi persoalan , struktur alam semesta bukanlah berupa bola yang memiliki satu pusat, melainkan sebuah struktur spiral multi dimensi berlapis tujuh. Informasi dari Al-Quran sudah cukup jelas. Tinggal manusia mengobservasi posisi bumi di dalam struktur spiral tersebut. Melihat gejala ini, mau tidak mau bumi meiliki posisi yang istimewa dalam alam semesta ini. Walaupun bukan sebagai pusat alam tata surya maupun galaksi, kemungkinan bumi (memang ) berada di dekat pusat alam semesta atau bahkan menjadi pusat alam semesta sebagai penyeimbang pengembangan alam semesta itu sendiri.

Sains vs Agama

Bagi orang beriman sangat mudah menerima suatu dogma bumi sebagai pusat alam semesta , karena memang sejak awal kitab suci agama samawi, baik Taurat maupun Injil sudah menginformasikan bumi sebagai pusat alam semesta . Oleh karena itu di abad pertengahan gereja sangat gigih mempertahanka bumi sebagai pusat tatasura (geosentris), dan mengancam ilmuwan – ilmuwan yang yang memiliki pendapat bahwa mataharilah pusat tata surya ( heliosentris), sedangkan bumi bumi sekedar sebagai salah satu planet yang mengedarinya.

Berbeda dengan orang awam , para ilmuwan tidak semudah itu untuk menerima dogma bahwa bumi sebagai pusat alam semesta atau setidaknya mendekati pusat alam semesta. Mereka memerlukan suatu penelitian empiris dan butuh dukungan perhitungan yang akurat, sehingga pernyataan bumi sebagai pusat alam semesta dapat diterima secara rasional.

Dalam kaitan ini pendapat para lmuwan, baik yang beriman maupun ateis, tidak bisa disalahkan begitu saja oleh golongan agama, baik muslim ,umat kristiani maupun yahudi. Sangat bermanfaat peran para ilmuwan untuk membuktikan struktur alam semesta sebagaimana informasi Alquran. Bila terbukti benar, akan memantapkan posisi Alquran sebagai wahyu Allah. Kalaulah belum ada kesesuain, bisa jadi masih belum lengkap penafsiran ayat-ayat Allah tersebut. Atau bahkan ilmu pengetahuan empiris tadak dapat mampu membuktikannya, karena ukuran alam semesta yang sangat luar biasa luasnya.

Sebenarnya para ilmuwan juga sudah menemukan indikasi bahwa bumi tempat hidup manusia turunan Adam ini berada di sekitar titik pusat alamsemesta. Mereka membuat suatu pengandaian , apabila alam semesta ini terbatas dan mempunyai pusat, dan galaksi bima sakti tidak berdekatan dengan pusat tersebut, maka alam semesta beserta isinya pada suatu sisi niscaya sedikit lebih cemerlang daripada sisi yang lain. Tetapi, nyatanya langit malam di luar bimasakti di satu arah tidak lebih cemerlang daripada arah yang lain. Oleh karena itu , para ahli astronmi terpaksa menyimpulkan bahwa langit itu terbentang tak terhingga ke segala arah. Para ahli astronomi tidak mau mengambil satu- satunya kesimpulan bahwa bumi merupakan pusat segala sesuatu, karena sejak abad pertengahan justru bumi telah dilengserkan oleh sistem Koprnikus. Di titik ini, belum bisa dicapai titik temu pandangan sains dengan pandangan agama (teologi)

Connection Between Blood Types And Personality

blood types

The blood types were discovered 100 yers ago in Vienna, Austria. The scientists in Europe began sugesting that there might be a connection between a person’s blood tyes and his/her personality. This belief has become popular, especially in many parts of Asia. The connection of it has influenced to the many puposes in this life. The following information of are each character or one’s personality depend on the blood type.

Blood type A, the person is always on time, hard worker and likes things perfect. He wants someone else to be a leader.

Blood type B, the person has emotional sense, with a strong personality. He has a natural leader and many new ideas, hates being told what to do.

 Blood type O, the person likes doing new things even they’re difficult . He is competitive person and loves to complete in business , at school and life. He thinks helping friends is important.

Blood type AB, has mixed personality. He doesn’t like showing his emotions and thinks friends are very important.

Do you believe it? For me, there are some points that do fit my personality but not all, so this is just a fun post. Don't take it seriously

Taken and simplified from Active Listening.                                                                                                                                                                       Helgesen/ Brown/Smith, 1996, Cambridge University

SOFTWARE ENGINEERING

I.  Sejarah Software Engineering
Istilah software engineering digunakan pertama kali pada akhir 1950-an dan awal 1960-an. Saat itu, masih terdapat perdebatan tajam mengenai aspek engineering dari pengembangan perangkat lunak. Pada tahun 1968 dan 1969, komite sains NATO mensponsori dua konferensi tentang rekayasa perangkat lunak, yang memberikan dampak kuat terhadap pengembangan rekayasa perangkat lunak. Banyak yang menganggap dua konferensi inilah yang menandai awal resmi profesi rekayasa perangkat lunak
II. Pengertian Dasar
Istilah Reakayasa Perangkat Lunak (RPL) secara umum disepakati sebagai terjemahan dari istilah Software engineering. Istilah Software Engineering mulai dipopulerkan pada tahun 1968 pada software engineering Conference yang diselenggarakan oleh NATO. Sebagian orang mengartikan RPL hanya sebatas pada bagaimana membuat program komputer. Padahal ada perbedaan yang mendasar antara perangkat lunak (software) dan program komputer.

1. III.    TUJUAN REKAYASA PERANGKAT   LUNAK

Secara lebih khusus kita dapat menyatakan tujuan RPL adalah:

• memperoleh biaya produksi perangkat lunak yang rendah
  • menghasilkan pereangkat lunak yang kinerjanya tinggi, andal dan tepat waktu
  • menghasilkan perangkat lunak yang dapat bekerja pada berbagai jenis platform
  • menghasilkan perangkat lunak yang biaya perawatannya rendah

IV.  RUANG LINGKUP

• software Requirements berhubungan dengan spesifikasi kebutuhan dan persyaratan perangkat lunak
• software desain mencakup proses penampilan arsitektur, komponen, antar muka, dan karakteristik lain dari perangkat lunak
• software construction berhubungan dengan detail pengembangan perangkat lunak, termasuk algoritma, pengkodean, pengujian dan pencarian kesalahan
• software testing meliputi pengujian pada keseluruhan perilaku perangkat lunak
• software maintenance mencakup upaya-upaya perawatan ketika perangkat lunak telah dioperasikan
• software configuration management berhubungan dengan usaha perubahan konfigurasi perangkat lunak untuk memenuhi kebutuhan tertentu
• software engineering management berkaitan dengan pengelolaan dan pengukuran RPL, termasuk perencanaan proyek perangkat lunak
• software engineering tools and methods mencakup kajian teoritis tentang alat bantu dan metode RPL

1. V.     REKAYASA PERANGKAT LUNAK DAN DISIPLIN ILMU LAIN

Cakupan ruang lingkup yang cukup luas, membuat RPL sangat terkait dengan disiplin dengan bidang ilmu lain, tidak saja sub bidang dalam disiplin ilmu komputer namun dengan beberapa disiplin ilmu lain diluar ilmu komputer antara lain :

• Bidang ilmu manajemen meliputi akuntansi, finansial, pemasaran, manajemen operasi, ekonomi, analisis kuantitatif, manajemen sumber daya manusia, kebijakan, dan strategi bisnis.
• Bidang ilmu matematika meliputi aljabar linier, kalkulus, peluang, statistik, analisis numerik, dan matematika diskrit.
• Bidang ilmu manajemen proyek meliputi semua hal yang berkaitan dengan proyek, seperti ruang lingkup proyek, anggaran, tenaga kerja, kualitas, manajemen resiko dan keandalan, perbaikan kualitas, dan metode-metode kuantitatif.

VI.  PERKEMBANGAN REKAYASA PERANGKAT LUNAK
Meskipun baru dicetuskan pada tahun 1968, namun RPL telah memiliki sejarah yang cukup yang panjang. Dari sisi disiplin ilmu, RPL masih reklatif muda dan akan terus berkembang
VII. METODE REKAYASA PERANGKAT LUNAK
Ikut pada rekayasa perangkat lunak, banyak model yang telah dikembangkan untuk membantu proses pengembangan perangkat lunak. Model-model ini pada umumnya mengacu pada model proses pengembangan sistem yang disebut System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) seperti terlihat pada Gambar ber ini.
Kebutuhan terhadap definisi masalah yang jelas.  Input utama dari setiap model pengembangan perangkat lunak adalah pendefinisian masalah yang jelas.  Semakin jelas akan semakin baik karena akan memudahkan dalam penyelesaian masalah.  Oleh karena itu pemahaman masalah seperti dijelaskan pada Bab 1, merupakan bagian penting dari model pengembangan perangkat lunak.

VIII. TAHAPAN REKAYASA PERANGKAT LUNAK

• Analisis sistem

Analisis sistem adalah sebuah teknik pemecahan masalah yang menguraikan sebuah sistem menjadi komponen-komponennya dengan tujuan mempelajari seberapa bagus komponen-komponen tersebut bekerja dan berinteraksi untuk meraih tujuan mereka.
Analisis mungkin adalah bagian terpenting dari proses rekayasa perangkat lunak.  Karena semua proses lanjutan akan sangat bergantung pada baik tidaknya hasil analisis. Ada satu bagian penting yang biasanya dilakukan dalam tahapan analisis yaitu pemodelan proses bisnis.

• Model proses

Model proses adalah model yang memfokuskan pada seluruh proses di dalam sistem  yang mentransformasikan data menjadi informasi (Harris, 2003).  Model proses juga menunjukkan aliran data yang masuk dan keluar pada suatu proses.  Biasanya model ini digambarkan dalam bentuk Diagram Arus Data (Data Flow Diagram / DFD).  DFD meyajikan gambaran apa yang manusia, proses dan prosedur lakukan untuk mentransformasi data menjadi informasi.

• Disain Perangkat Lunak

Desain perangkat lunak adalah tugas, tahapan atau aktivitas yang difokuskan pada spesifikasi detil dari solusi berbasis computer (Whitten et al, 2004).
Disain perangkat lunak sering juga disebut sebagai physical design.  Jika tahapan analisis sistem menekankan pada masalah bisnis (business rule), maka sebaliknya disain perangkat lunak fokus pada sisi teknis dan implementasi sebuah perangkat lunak (Whitten et al, 2004).
Output utama dari tahapan disain  perangkat lunak adalah spesifikasi disain.  Spesifikasi ini meliputi spesifikasi disain umum yang akan disampaikan kepada stakeholder sistem dan spesifikasi disain rinci yang akan digunakan pada tahap implementasi.  Spesifikasi disain umum hanya berisi gambaran umum agar stakeholder sistem mengerti akan seperti apa perangkat lunak yang akan dibangun.Biasanya diagram USD tentang perangkat lunak yang baru merupakan point penting dibagian ini.
Spesifikasi disain rinci atau kadang disebut disain arsitektur rinci perangkat lunak diperlukan untuk merancang sistem sehingga memiliki konstruksi yang baik, proses pengolahan data yang tepat dan akurat, bernilai, memiliki aspek user friendly dan memiliki dasar-dasar untuk pengembangan selanjutnya.
Desain arsitektur ini terdiri dari desain database, desain proses, desain user interface yang mencakup desain  input,  output form dan report, desain hardware, software dan jaringan.  Desain proses merupakan kelanjutan dari pemodelan proses yang dilakukan pada tahapan analisis.

• Konstruksi

Konstruksi adalah tahapan menerjemahkan hasil disain logis dan fisik ke dalam kode-kode program komputer.

• Pengujian sitem

Pengujian sistem melibatkan semua  kelompok pengguna yang telah direncanakan pada tahap sebelumnya. Pengujian tingkat penerimaan terhadap perangkat lunak akan berakhir ketika dirasa semua kelompok pengguna menyatakan bisa menerima perangkat  lunak tersebut berdasarkan kriteria-kriteria yang telah ditetapkan.

• Perawatan dan Konfigurasi

 Ketika sebuah perangkat lunak telah dianggap layak untuk dijalankan, maka tahapan baru menjadi muncul yaitu perawatan perangkat lunak.  Ada beberapa tipe perawatan yang biasa dikenal dalam dunia perangkat lunak seperti terlihat pada diagram di Gambar di bawah ini :

• Tipe perawatan  corrective dilakukan jika terjadi kesalahan atau biasa dikenal sebagai bugs.  Perawatan  bisa dilakukan dengan memperbaiki kode program, menambah bagian  yang dirasa perlu atau malah menghilangkan bagian-bagian tertentu.
• Tipe perawatan  routine biasa juga disebut preventive maintenance dilakukan secara rutin untuk melihat kinerja perangkat lunak ada atau tidak ada kesalahan.
• Tipe perawatan  sistem upgrade dilakukan jika ada perubahan dari komponen-komponen yang terlibat  dalam perangkat lunak tersebut. Sebagai contoh perubahan platform sistem operasi dari versi lama ke versi baru menyebabkan perangkat lunak harus diupgrade.

Verbal Communication : The Way People Speak

Culture influence comunication styles. Although this point may seem obvious, cultural styles can and do create misunderstandings in conversations among people from different cultures.
For example, consider the following conversation between an Italian and an American. The Italian made a strong political statement with which he knew this his American friend would disagree. The Italian wanted to involve The American in a lively discussion. The American rather than openly disagreeing, said, “ Well, everyone is entitled to an opinion. I accept that your opinion is different than mine.” The Italian responded . “ That’s all you have to say about it?” In general, the American did not enjoy verbal conflicts over politics or anything else. The Italian actually became angry when the American refused to get involved in the discussion. He later explained to the American, “ A conversation isn’t fun unless it become heated.”
What does this example say about culture and its influence on communication ? Surely, there are many Americans who do get involved in verbal conflicts over politics , just as there are some Italians who would not become involved. However , the above conversation represents types of communication pattern that are related to cultural differences.

Conversational Involvement
In her book: You Just Don’t Understand, the sociolinguistic research Deborah Tannea discusses the notion that people from some cultures value “high involvement “ conversation patterns , while ether value “ high considerateness” patterns . Many people from culture that prefer “ high involvement” styles tend to : 1). Talk more 2). Interupt more 3). Expect to be interrupted 4). Talk more loudly at time and 5). Talk more quickly than those from cultures favoring “ high considerateness” styles. Many “ high involvement “ speakers enjoy arguments and might even think that others are not interested if they are not ready to engags in a heated discussion.

On the other hand , people from cultures that favor “ high considerateness” styles tend to 1). Speak one at time. 2)use polite listening sounds ; 3) refrain from iterrupting; and 4) give plenty positive and respecful responses to their conversation partners. Most teachers of English as a Second Lenguage (ESL) in multi cultural classrooms have observed that some students become very involved in classroom conversation and discussion, whereas ethers tend to participate only in a hestical manner. The challenge for the teacher is not to allow the “ high involvement “ group to dominate discussions.
The cultures that Tannen characterizes as having “ high involvment” conversational styles include Russia ,Italian , Greek , Spanish, South American , Arab ,and African. In general , the various communication styles in Asian cultures (e.g. Chinese and Japanese) would be chracterized as “ high considerateness.” Mainstream American conversation style would also be characterized as “ high considerateness” , althought it differs significantly from the various Asian patterns. Thre are important regional and ethnic differences in conversation styles within the United States.

Incorrect Judgments of Characters
Americans can have problems when talking to each other because of differences. For example , New Yorkers tend to talk faster and respond more quickly ( high involvement) than Californians ( high considerateness). To some New Yorkers, Californians seem slower , less intelligent, and not responsive. To some Californian , New Yorkers seem pushy and domineering. The judgment that people make about regional differences within a country are similar to those they make about people from another culture. The reactions to such differencess are not usually expressed in the following reasonable fashion. “The way she speak s is different from my way of speaking. She must have had a different cultural upbringing. I won’t judge her according to my standards of what is an acceptable communication style”
Instead , people tend to make judgments such as , “ She’s loud, pushy , and domineering ,” or “ He doesn’t seem interested in talking. He’s very passive and uninvolved. “ The people interacting are forgetting that their respective cultural styles are responsible , in part , for their mannerisms and habits of communication. The important differences in communication create prblems of stereotyping and incorrect judgments among members of diverse groups.


Taken form :
Cross Cultural Understanding

By Kendra Nicole Staley, M.A

Chernobyl: A Tour of Ground Zero

The abandoned city of Pripyat in winter. Picture from SAM Travel Ukraine.

In the first part of this article, I briefly detailed the history of the Chernobyl disaster, the worst nuclear accident in history. Hundreds of thousands were affected, tens of thousands killed, and an entire city evacuated and abandoned. Today, the only life and economy that has returned the area, besides the workers involved in the ongoing cleanup, is a small, rugged tourist industry that takes the curious into what had been ground zero.  

I took a tour of Chernobyl through a company called SoloEast. Before booking, I had read it was a good idea to check around as prices can vary (at least partly depending on the size of the group). Besides SoloEast, I contacted New Logic, Sam and the Ukranian Hostel Association asking to join a group.

SoloEast was the first to respond – quoting me $185 for a group tour in which I would be joining ten other people. A few days later I got a response from New Logic, but they didn't give me a price quote because they were aware I had already received a quote from SoloEast, who are apparently connected with them. If you want to get several price quotes, I'd recommend that you contact different agencies using different email addresses and names.

There are several restrictions and many precautions set up on the tour. Those attending must be at least 18 years old, and you must bring your passport. You cannot wear shorts, open-toed shoes, or tank tops. Those that are not properly dressed are left behind.

Taking photos and video is allowed almost everywhere, except of checkpoints, security devices (including any fences) and certain areas specified by the guide.

Altogether the tour takes about nine hours (including travel time), and involves a lot less walking than I anticipated – we were in the bus most of the time. We met in Independence Square in downtown Kiev at 8:45 am. We were bussed to Chernobyl, about eighty miles away. The bus was equipped with televisions on which they showed a documentary film about the incident and its aftermath. The video is quite informative – so if you've skipped part one of this article, you can still be well-informed for the tour once you get there.

An abandoned classroom in Pripyat, near Chernobyl. While it looks ransacked, this is what happens to man-made things when man is not around to maintain them.

We reached the first checkpoint and piled out of the bus. One by one, they took our passports, checked their lists to make sure we were on it, and scrutinized our passport photos and faces as fat bees buzzed around our heads.

We got back in the bus and headed for ChernobylInterInform, a state-run agency founded to encourage the study of the area and incident and which also helps coordinate tours. At InterInform we were introduced to our guide, Vladimir. Vladimir, one of 130,000 nuclear refugees after the accident at Chernobyl, now works for the agency. He spoke in Russian and an interpreter translated. He told us about the accident, eagerly answered our questions, and showed us pictures that were taken of Chernobyl and the surrounding areas in the days and years following the disaster.

One picture that was particularly memorable showed an enormous junkyard with vehicles piled on top of each other. Some 1,500 vehicles, used as clean-up tools after the accident, were contaminated and hence dangerous, and most of them are still out in the open and not properly stored to this day. We were told we wouldn't be visiting any of the areas where service vehicles were located or buried. However, if you're interested in that, there's a special tour that focuses on the clean-up after the catastrophe.

Vladimir, our guide, told us that today workers who are participating in the clean-up work twenty minutes a day and earn a full-time salary. They are closely monitored to measure how much exposure they receive each time, and can only work until they reach a certain limit. Then, they must find new careers.

We signed a form that explained the rules (no wandering off from the tour guide, no picking stuff up or taking anything out of the area, no taking pictures in areas the guide specifies as a no-photo zone, etc.). There was also a release-from-liability section that stated that if this tour should in any way have any negative affect upon your health, you will in no way hold anyone other than yourself responsible. Everyone in the group signed and on that note, we set off for Reactor No. 4, where the explosion took place.

The guide, Vladimir, holds a detector over an exceptionally radioactive patch of ground.

Our guide had a radiation detector, and he held it up during the bus ride, so we knew when radioactivity was rising or falling. On the way to Reactor No. 4, we passed large fields and some forests. The fields intermittently had bright yellow signs sticking out of the ground, which showed where radioactive material had been buried so that future generations can eventually move the material to safer storage. We passed a wide, empty patch where there had once been trees, which had burned down not from fire, but from radiation.

We stopped along the road and got out of the minivan to look at a construction site. Reactors 5 and 6 had been begun but never finished and the bulldozers, material, and partially-constructed reactors had been left as they had been in 1986. We were told not to step off the road into the grass as this was an "unclean" (contaminated) area. Vladimir told us that the road we were on had been cleaned hundreds of times but becomes contaminated again because of the surroundings. The body of water ahead of us was highly contaminated. Thankfully, it's still water that does not flow to other areas. We were told that there was a water supply underneath Reactor No. 4, and if the concrete separating the radioactive material from the water broke, it would have contaminated Ukraine's entire water supply. Thankfully that didn't – and hasn't – happened.  Vladimir told us to stomp our feet – but not wipe them on the ground – for 15-30 seconds before getting back into the van.

We got out of the vehicle again, only 109 yards away from Reactor No. 4. We were given instructions not to photograph any part of the reactor that showed fence, entrance or exit points, – which was very difficult if not impossible. You had to decide whether to risk it – the Ukrainian police, known as "militsia" randomly check tourist' photos at checkpoints by clicking on the camera's review button. If they find any pictures breaking rules, they will confiscate them (often by taking the memory stick). The militsia reserves the right to confiscate any items from tourists taking the trip.

A botanical effect of the Chernobyl explosion. This tree is growing along the ground like a vine.

We all stared at Reactor No. 4 while Vladimir told us that nobody knows what is going on inside of it. The sarcophagus built around it to keep the radiation in has sealed it completely. Scientists can only theorize about what is going on inside: it's believed chemical reactions have given birth to new elements. We also learned that the hastily built sarcophagus is deteriorating. Several attempts had been made to begin a second protective layer around the first, but funding was – and still is – a major issue, and the project wasn't started until 2007. The new 1.7 billion dollar construction is estimated to be completed by 2012.

We got back in the minivan and headed for the ghost town of Pripyat, where there was another checkpoint where our passports were checked to make sure we were on the militsia's list. 

Pripyat was a city of 43,000 where the plant workers lived. Our guide told us that before the accident it had the highest birth rate in Ukraine. The city was prospering. Now, more than 20 years after the accident, the radiation level still makes the city uninhabitable. Most of the windows are broken. Trees and shrubbery are overgrown, slowly growing into the buildings. We were brought to an empty elementary school. The floors are covered with glass, papers, pieces of wood, books, notebooks, Soviet posters, and random items such as a shoe or a doll. You can still read the teachers' Russian writing on the chalkboards: one lesson was practice dictating telephone numbers. We also visited a commercial building with trees growing out of the floors, glass and other debris all over, walls missing – it looks like it had been through a war, but it's just the result of the elements' wear without human upkeep. We also walked through a recreation facility and amusement park – both built not long before the accident.

At the amusement park our guide, Vladimir, brought us over to a highly radioactive patch of grass about 6x4 feet in the middle of the concrete. "Don't step here," he said, as we all crouched around him snapping pictures of the radiation detector in his hand going berserk. He also showed us a deformed tree that was lying on its side with the branches growing straight up. After a few minutes at the amusement park, he said, "Let's go. We can't stay here. It's not clean."

Bumper cars left in the abandoned amusement park in Pripyat.

We got in the minivan again and Vladimir told us we were about to drive through a highly radioactive zone. Again he held up the radiation detector so we knew when radiation was rising or falling. By this time, the group mood was slightly depressed – no more questions for the guide, no dark banter tossed around. We all sat silently and either stared out the window or watched Vladimir's radiation detector. I think most of us were ready for the tour to be over.

We pulled up to a small building and were told to get out. It was the last control point, and it was time to measure our radiation. Vladimir showed us how to stand between two pieces of metal, looking forward with our hands placed on the sides while the machine took a few seconds to determine whether we were "clean." I had read in my guidebook that only one person on these tours had ever actually set it off – a Dutch photographer who had wandered off from the group.

We were brought back to InterInform and were stuffed full of borsh, bread, buns, carrot salad, fish, cabbage-stuffed pelmeni, and a turkey hotdish. They brought each dish out to us rapidly and if we hadn't finished the one prior they'd try to take it away. Our tables were piled with plates of food at various stages of consumption. Although there had been less walking than I thought there would have been, it had been an exhausting day both physically and emotionally and we found we were all starving. We got back in the bus, and most people slept on the way back to Kiev.

While a tour of a radioactive fallout-out zone is not likely to be something you would do twice or perhaps even want to do twice – it is something I'm glad I did once. 

By Lisa Horner
graduate of the Translate Abroad Program through The School of Russian and Asian Studies (SRAS)

The Sun

The sun

Now we continue the journey toward the sun. We already know the sun. Below are a few posts about the sun. what is the sun?

The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. It is almost perfectly spherical and consists of hot plasma interwoven with magnetic fields. It has a diameter of about 1,392,000 km, about 109 times that of Earth, and its mass (about 2×1030 kilograms, 330,000 times that of Earth) accounts for about 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System. Chemically, about three quarters of the Sun's mass consists of hydrogen, while the rest is mostly helium. Less than 2% consists of heavier elements, including oxygen, carbon, neon, iron, and others.

The Sun is fueled by nuclear fusion reactions. The light from the Sun heats our planet and makes life possible. The Sun is also an active star that displays sunspots, solar flares, erupting prominences, and coronal mass ejections. These phenomena, which are all related to the Sun's magnetic field, impact our near-Earth space environment and determine our "space weather". In about five billion years, the Sun will evolve into a Red Giant, and eventually, a White Dwarf star. Many cultures have had interesting myths about the Sun, in recognition of its importance to life on Earth.

The parts of the Sun above the photosphere are referred to collectively as the solar atmosphere. The coolest layer of the Sun is a temperature minimum region about 500 km above the photosphere, with a temperature of about 4,100 K. This part of the Sun is cool enough to support simple molecules such as carbon monoxide and water, which can be detected by their absorption spectra.

sunboy

Above the temperature minimum layer is a layer about 2,000 km thick, dominated by a spectrum of emission and absorption lines. It is called the chromosphere from the Greek root chroma, meaning color.

Above the chromosphere, in a thin (about 200 km) transition region, the temperature rises rapidly from around 20,000 K in the upper chromosphere to coronal temperatures closer to 1,000,000 K.

The corona is the extended outer atmosphere of the Sun, which is much larger in volume than the Sun itself. The corona continuously expands into space forming the solar wind, which fills all the Solar System.[58] The low corona, which is very near the surface of the Sun, has a particle density around 1015–1016 m−3.

The heliosphere, which is the cavity around the Sun filled with the solar wind plasma, extends from approximately 20 solar radii (0.1 AU) to the outer fringes of the Solar System. Its inner boundary is defined as the layer in which the flow of the solar wind becomes superalfvénic—that is, where the flow becomes faster than the speed of Alfvén waves. Turbulence and dynamic forces outside this boundary cannot affect the shape of the solar corona within, because the information can only travel at the speed of Alfvén waves. The solar wind travels outward continuously through the heliosphere, forming the solar magnetic field into a spiral shape, until it impacts the heliopause more than 50 AU from the Sun. In December 2004, the Voyager 1 probe passed through a shock front that is thought to be part of the heliopause. Both of the Voyager probes have recorded higher levels of energetic particles as they approach the boundary.

Mars, "Red Planet"

Mars in 1980 as seen by the Viking 1 Orbiter

 After writing about the beauty of the place where on earth so now we see the planet mars.
Do you believe that one day humans could live on planet mars? Do you want to live in mars? So let's see how the situation on the planet mars. 

Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun in the Solar System. The planet is named after the Roman god of war, Mars. It is often described as the "Red Planet", as the iron oxide prevalent on its surface gives it a reddish appearance.
Mars is a terrestrial planet with a thin atmosphere, having surface features reminiscent both of the impact craters of the Moon and the volcanoes, valleys, deserts, and polar ice caps of Earth. The rotational period and seasonal cycles of Mars are likewise similar to those of Earth, as is the tilt that produces the seasons. Mars is the site of Olympus Mons, the highest known mountain within the Solar System, and of Valles Marineris, the largest canyon. The smooth Borealis basin in the northern hemisphere covers 40% of the planet and may be a giant impact feature

Size comparison of Earth and Mars

Size comparison of Earth and Mars.

Mars has approximately half the radius of Earth. It is less dense than Earth, having about 15% of Earth's volume and 11% of the mass. Its surface area is only slightly less than the total area of Earth's dry land.
Mars has two permanent polar ice caps. During a pole's winter, it lies in continuous darkness, chilling the surface and causing 25–30% of the atmosphere to condense out into thick slabs of CO2 ice (dry ice). When the poles are again exposed to sunlight, the frozen CO2 sublimes, creating enormous winds that sweep off the poles as fast as 400 km/h. These seasonal actions transport large amounts of dust and water vapor, giving rise to Earth-like frost and large cirrus clouds. Clouds of water-ice were photographed by the Opportunity rover in 2004.

The tenuous atmosphere of Mars

The atmosphere on Mars consists of 95% carbon dioxide, 3% nitrogen, 1.6% argon and contains traces of oxygen and water. The atmosphere is quite dusty, containing particulates about 1.5 µm in diameter which give the Martian sky a tawny color when seen from the surface.
Martian surface temperatures vary from lows of about −87 °C (−125 °F) during the polar winters to highs of up to −5 °C (23.0 °F) in summers. The wide range in temperatures is due to the thin atmosphere which cannot store much solar heat, the low atmospheric pressure, and the low thermal inertia of Martian soil.
Mars’ average distance from the Sun is roughly 230 million km (1.5 AU) and its orbital period is 687 (Earth) days. The solar day (or sol) on Mars is only slightly longer than an Earth day: 24 hours, 39 minutes, and 35.244 seconds. A Martian year is equal to 1.8809 Earth years, or 1 year, 320 days, and 18.2 hours.

Phobos (left) and Deimos (right)

Mars has two tiny natural moons, Phobos and Deimos, which orbit very close to the planet. Both satellites were discovered in 1877 by Asaph Hall, and are named after the characters Phobos (panic/fear) and Deimos (terror/dread) who, in Greek mythology, accompanied their father Ares, god of war, into battle. Ares was known as Mars to the Romans.

Photograph of a Martian sunset taken by Spirit at Gusev crater, May 19, 2005.

Do you still want to live in mars? I would rather prefer to live on earth, because earth is a planet that has been created by God for human life. So I think the earth is the best place for human beings.

Volcano

Avolcano is a mountain surrounding an in the earth’s crust. Steam, gases, lava, ashes and other materials are forced out almost continuously from an active volcano.A dormant volcano, on the other hand, erupts at long intervals. In an extinct volcano, the crater has long been closed up with cold, solid lava
Our earth was a sphere of gases which slowly cooled off from outside,forming a thin crust of cold, solid materials, containing hot liquid, magma, and gases. It was the very highpressure of the gases forcing the magma through weak parts in the earth’s crust that formed volcanoes.
There are some 500 volcanoes in Indonesia, of which about 180 are still active . They are found in three rows. The first row strtches over a distance of 7000 km fron North Sumatra – Java, the northern row af island of Nusa Tenggara ending up on the island on Saparua near Ambon.

The second row runs from Sulawesi thrugh Sangihe asa far as the Philipine island ; while the third runs from Irian to Halmahera, Kalimantan and the southern island of Nusa Tenggara , lying outside those rows , are not volcanic.
Most of our volcanoes are in Java. The most active one is mount Merapi at the north of Yogya. The northern part of the crater has a high wall, so in eruption the lava flows in every direction. The hot lava slowly cools off into what is called “ lahar”
In the rainy season , when the cool”lahaar” on Merapi’s slopes is hits by rain it flows down the slopes with great force, destroying everything in its path. The flow of “lahar “ mixed with rocks fills up the rivers, while sand covers the fields.
The eruption of sea volcanoes cause high waves , flooding regions on the coasts. This happened when Krakatau erupted in 1833. The sound of the eruption was heard from places as far away as India, Irian and Australia, distance of 3’600 to 4,800 km from Krakatau. Around 18 cubic km of solid materials were thrown up. The skies above places were darkened. 30 meter high waves flooded the coasts of west Java and Lampung, sweeping away village and 35’000 people.
However , volcanoes are also a great blessing. Volcanoes and mountains force the clouds to rise, and cool them off, causing them to drop the water they contain in the form of rain. The materials thrown up by volcanoes contain minerals needed by plants. The higher regions, being cool, are good for coffee, protect the soil against erosion, while the soil acts as a water reservoir giving water to the rivers.
Volcanic eruption may destroy life ,but they also make the land fertile.

A Piece of Raffles’s life

Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles the discovered of Rafelesia Arnoldi, had only 14 years old educated by at school. Though, the young Raffles, who was born July 6, 1781, enforces himself to study autodidactic and worked hard.
When he was 30 years old, he persuaded British government to overcome Java. He’s governed Java 4 yers. By his own vision built Singapore when he was 38 years old. He put liberalism to his career and rejected about stavery enforcement. This interest to flora and fauna leaded him to discovery some discoveries and wrote scientific books. He has made his life. It seemed he knew that has had no much time. Ten years after he got mobility title, Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles passed away suffering brain tumor at 45 years old.

Taken from : Intisari, February 1996

How to upload Blogger templates?

How to upload Blogger templates??
For some people sometimes original blogspot templates less attractive. but do not worry.
because this article explains how to upload blogger template to your blog...

1.Download your Blogger XML template from http://themelib.com

The template is contained in a zip file, ensure you have extracted the XML template.
2. Log in to your Blogger dashboard and go to Layout > Edit HTML
3. Remember to back up your old template.because if there is a failure you can restore yaur blog .
To do this, click on the "download full template" link and save the file to your hard drive.
4. Look for the section near the top where you can browse for your XML template
5. Enter the location of your template and press "upload".we recommend that you upload the template image in photobucket.Open the .xml
file containing template code.
Do a search for 'url(' without the quotes and replace it with
the directory url of your images. For example if the url of an
image is http://s61.photobucket.com/albums/h59/c_stavanger/grunge2/bg.gif
then replace url( with url(http://s61.photobucket.com/albums/h59/c_stavanger/grunge2/
6.Save the .xml file.
7. Login to your Blogger dashboard, go to Layout tab,
then Edit HTML sub-tab.

8. Clear the code box, paste in your
new template code or upload the .xml file and save.